History of English Literature

Stream of Consciousness

The Stream of consciousness novel is concerned with the atmosphere of a mind. It is not a novel of incidents or of action, but rather treatment of the inner world of man. It depicts and illuminates the particular moments of human experiences and feelings and reveals how a mind is affected at its bottom by the same. It turns from external reality to inner revelation, from the outward world of action to the hidden resort of reverie. 

The main aspect of this class of novel is found in an inward turning toward mental experiences. The novelist exposes how a man’s mind moves mysteriously and how it flows continuously yet quite intricately. The novelist makes a penetrative analysis of this tendency of the mind, dissecting it in all its elusive and dynamic aspects. This is an expressionist technique to reveal different characters – their inmost thoughts, moods, feelings. 

This technique is found eminently used by James Joyce and Virginia Woolf – two prominent names in this kind of fiction.

James Joyce (1882-1941)

The perfection of the stream of consciousness technique is perceived in James Joyce, a unique talent in modern English fiction. His celebrated novel ‘Ulysses’ unveils the inner world of human consciousness and shows the use of the stream of consciousness method more thoroughly.

This novel has no conventional story interest. The action of ‘Ulysses’ covers only one specific day, rather less than the entire twenty four hours, in one specific place, Dublin, in 1904. Nothing extraordinary or sensational happens in the action of the novel. However, Joyce treats the inner world of each character through his or her participation in different activities and shows the flow of the stream of consciousness in it.

Virginia Woolf (1882-1941)

The stream of consciousness technique is seen further developed in Virginia Woolf, as seen in her celebrated work ‘Mrs. Dalloway’, published in 1925. There is a pattern in the continuous change in the mind, and this give a meaning to the whole plan.

This stream of consciousness technique forms the essence of Virginia Woolf’s world of fiction, as of James Joyce’s. Her other works such as ‘To the Lighthouse’, ‘The Waves’ and “Between the Acts’ are framed in the same pattern, revealing the working of the inner world in a specific situation or occasion.

Though, the stream of consciousness has not as much continuous flow in Virginia Woolf as in James Joyce. The nature of the character, conceived by her, has affected the full stream of consciousness in her novels. The mind, in its constant consciousness, is found engaged in some perpetual soliloquy, which becomes the key point in her fiction. 

The stream of consciousness technique is a bold experiment in modern English fiction. Thus, the technique’s range and the possibility are well demonstrated by James Joyce and Virginia Woolf in particularly.

History of English Literature

Growth of Modern British Drama.

The drama in England was in a state of serious decline from the end of Goldsmith and Sheridan till 1865. The rise of novel in the Victorian era and its rapidly growing popularity were partly responsible for the lack of the foothold for drama. Though it was a great era for poetry and fiction, the English theatre fared one of the most unrewarding periods.

However, towards the close of the nineteenth century radical changes had already begun to be seen in the plays of such writers as T. W. Robinson, W.B. Gilbert, and Oscar Wilde. Their mild radicalism consisted in moving towards realism and taking up social issues.

It was from the continent that England got the fire required for the revival of her drama. Ibsen, a Norwegian, brought about the renaissance in the modern drama. The influence of Ibsen was with the production of T. W. Robinson’s comedy society that the awakening of drama in England was noted. Robinson, of course, was no great artist, but he marked the beginning of a prosperous voyage of the British drama. Robinson was followed by Henry Arthur Jones and Sir Arthur Wing Pinero. Both Jones and Pinero raised the English drama from the mud and placed it in a position where it could command respect.

 Under the influence of Ibsen, the drama in England began to change, improve and to treat more intimately and elaborately the serious problems of actual life. With the treatment of actual life, the British drama became more and more a vehicle for the propagation of ideas, social, political, economic and religious.

With the entry of George Bernard Shaw, the British drama has succeeded once again and occupied the central position in the literary activities of the land. A direct descendant of Ibsen, as he was, Shaw has proved to be the most outstanding British dramatist since Shakespeare. He is found to be a prolific author, and his plays contain a good many subjects and have a unique versatility. Moreover, his plays serve to propagate his caustic, anti-romantic views in diverse matters, including the evolution of man.

Some other prolific British dramatists were – J. M. Synge, John Galsworthy, James Barrie, Granville Barker, and Lady Gregory etc.

Thus, these British dramatists, with their caustic pen, were able to unveil the cloud that made the drama unremarkable, and took it to the highest position as it was in the Renaissance period. 

History of English Literature

Note on Auden generation.

T. S. Eliot has dominated the English poetic scene till 1930; after that a new school of English poets have come to the forefront. These new English poets, popularly called the poets of the thirties, have a new poetic treat, with a new point of view for their readers. Inspired by Eliot and Hopkins, as admitted by their pioneers, the plane of the social reality of their poetry is altogether different. This new poetry is found concerned with an intense social consciousness and introduced a new political idealism, under the impact of the existing social and political environment of Europe.  Thus the new literary movement is headed by W.H. Auden, and the other leading poets of this group are Stephen Spender and Cecil Day Lewis and so on. 

W.H. Auden (1907-73)

The most original and the most poetically exciting among the modern poets is W. H. Auden who settled in America shortly before the Second World War. He belonged to a generation that lived in the years marked by powerful stout thinking and did not much focus on family life, a traditional theme of unhappy romantic love. He is greatly distressed by the upper and lower classes. It is the sense of imminent crisis which pervades his early poetry.

In his later poetry Auden has given up the psychological-economic diagnosis of the troubles of the times, and developed a more sober, contemplative and religious approach to life. But he is also capable of writing light verse full of puns and ironic overtone.  Some of his famous poetic works are ‘The Orator’, ‘Another Time’, ‘New Year Letter’, ‘For the Time Being’, ‘The Shield of Achilles’, ‘About the House’ and so on.

Stephen Spender (1909- 1995)

Stephen Spender who began writing under the influence of Auden composed lyrics in which he expressed sympathy for the working classes-

Oh young men, oh young comrades,
It is too late now to stay in those houses
Your fathers built where they built you to breed money on money.

But in his later poetry he has developed his own quiet, autobiographical style, which is unlike the style of any modern poet.

Cecil Day Lewis (1904-72)

Cecil Day Lewis also wrote his early poetry under the influence of Auden. But his later poetry has become more and more reflective and reminiscent. Moreover, he has adopted the Victorian diction. On account of his profound knowledge of technique he may be called the academic poet of the present age. In his poems the imagery is primarily rural and his tone is elegiac.

Other important English poets of the present age were Louis Mac Niece, Edith Sitwell, Robert Graves, George Barker, and Dylan Thomas. Though they do not form any definite group, yet there is a tendency among them to Romanticism in English poetry which had become metaphysical and classical under the influence of Hopkins, Ezra Pound, and T. S. Eliot.

It would be better to remind ourselves that in the thirties the older poets of the earlier era were also actively engaged in producing poetry. However, the characteristics poetry of the 30s came to be produced by the new generation of poets, the generation of Auden and his contemporaries.

The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne

Relationship between the scarlet letter and Hester Prynne.

Written by Nathaniel Hawthorne “The Scarlet Letter” in 1850, based on a true event that took place two hundred years before the narrator describes, is completely a reflection of the Puritan society of the Colonial America in the 1650’s. Though Hawthorne had been brought up in the puritanical society, he deliberately supports the idea of individualism and opposes the rigid law of Puritans; as illustrates his personal beliefs through imagery and symbolism along with the characters portrayal as well as the synchronize structure of the novel. 

Before going to the in depth analysis of the novel, it must have some prior to discuss about the typical ideas of the Puritan society and its conflicts with Hawthorne’s beliefs. The Puritan adored the concept of connection between individualism and God; therefore, they left the Old World in course of purifying the church. The Puritans believed extremely upon the supremacy of Bible and, that God had elected some souls who would be ultimately blessed by Him and other mankinds were cursed by depravity for Original Sin. Thus, the Puritans supported the convictions that no moral living or good work could purify ones evil act and salvations were predestined which could not be earn by virtuous deeds. On the contrary, Hawthorne’s viewpoint of the society was different. He favored the theory of individualism and self-reliance and, the admiration of nature and humankind. 

In the novel, the scarlet letter “A”, an embroidered on Hester’s bosom, symbolizes the rigid and dogmatic theology of the Puritans and Hester Prynne, the protagonist, represents the inner strengths of Hawthorne’s volition that in many ways opposes the ideas of Puritans. 

As the play begins, we find Hester Prynne as a sinner who has committed adultery. Thus she has been punished through public humiliation, in the first scaffold scene, for long three hours where she clutches on her bosom the living symbol of her adultery, her daughter and wears the scarlet letter ‘A’ that refers to Adultery. 

In the Puritan society, ‘adultery’ was referred as one of the highest crime and the Puritans believed that there were no chance to make Hester purify. Thus, in religious view, public humiliation of a sinner was supposed to serve as a constant reminder that sin and immoral work can never be tolerated without punishment. For this reason, Hester is outcasted from the society. Even also the society wants to separate Hester from her daughter Pearl, as they desire to give Pearl a good guardianship, but Hester Pleads to the Governor over Pearls guardianship-

“God gave me the child! He gave her in requital of all things else, which he had taken from me…Ye shall not take her! I will die first!”

In this chapter we also find a significant symbolism of social view – when Hester finds her scarlet ‘A’ in the mirror of the Governor’s house, that seems to her a gigantic figure which indicates that, society takes the sin of adultery more profoundly where Hester’s own identity and happiness gets dim.

Being outcasted from the society, Hester started needle work for survivor. She is so artistic in her work that everyone - from the Governor to a poor takes it from her by maintaining secrecy. Here, the corruption of the society is remarkable. Hester also helps the poor people and takes care of them that makes Hester as a compassionate woman and the scarlet letter ‘A’ now stands as ‘Able’ for her voluntary deeds.  And, at the end of the novel, Hester’s ‘A’ changes in to the meaning of ‘An Important Person’ as she is called by Dimmesdale on stage in the Election Day. 

By rendering as an adulterer to able, the Governor asserts Hester to stop wearing the letter ‘A’; but surprisingly Hester refuses because by doing so she actually protest against the strict rituals of society. If she removes the letter from her bosom then, according to Hester, she will silently acknowledge society’s power over her. Thus, here we find Hester as a transcendentalist, believes in individualism parallel to Hawthorne’s viewpoint.  Hester acknowledges her sin and shame by wearing the letter ‘A’ – as a symbol of her past experience and character. Indeed, her past sin is the part of who she is, to pretend that never happened would mean denying the part of herself. Thus, Hester very determinedly integrates her sin to her life.  

History of English Literature

What is satire? Discuss the prevalence of satire in the 18^th century in the particular reference of Pope and Swift.

Satire, in general, means a literary work which searches out the faults of men or institution in order to hold them up to ridicule. The objective of satire is not always critical, however, a good satire, like noted by Dryden, has clinical and corrective effects, too. 

Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift occupy the most distinctive positions in the history of English satirical literature. The “Age of Satire” in England is mainly associated with their names and in them is found the growth of English satirical literature. 

Alexander Pope is the most representative poet in his age and delineates his society perfectly well, with all its tendencies, ideals and manners. His celebrated work “The Rape of the Lock” is a brilliant piece of workmanship, breathing the very spirit of the time, and contains an exquisite picture of the contemporary depraved fashionable society of London.  In fact, the truth of his poetry lies much in the truthfulness presentation of the social follies and vanities of his own days. 

As a satirist, Pope is a great wit. His poetry is delightfully witty and this is another characteristic that has made his writing so popular among the reader of all times.

Again, Pope is considered as a social critic- a critic of all that is vulgar, gross, weak and dull; found in his mock epic “The Rape of the Lock”. His satire is directed not against any individual man or woman, but rather against the whole corrupt, vulgar, artificial English society of the eighteenth century. 

Jonathan Swift, an extremely talented author, as a satirist, is still remarkable in the history of English literature; though his works are in prose not in verse. He cannot definitely be placed among the verse satirist of the time. Yet without his name the satirical literature of England remains incomplete and imperfect. 

Swift is deemed as an innovator of his prose satire which he gives out in a number of his works, including “The Battle of the Books”, “The Tale of a Tub” and “Gulliver’s Travels”. The former work is quit appealing, where the satire is both personal and general. In “Gulliver’s Travels” he caricatures with a rare gift of subtlety, different political personalities in high ranks and makes a much penetrative fun of them.

Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift, as satirists, stand unassailable in the realm of English literature. Both of their contributions to English literature are unequivocal and inconsiderable. 

History of English Literature

Elizabethan age: the most glorious period in English literature.

In the evaluation of the progress of British civilization, no historian can afford to ignore the Elizabethan Age. Under the rule of Elizabeth I (1558-1603) the then England prospered unprecedentedly in all the major sectors of life. Eventually literature flourished in such a way that it touched the peak of excellence. Its height is still unsurpassed and for this reason, the Elizabethan age is called the “most glorious period” of English literature.   

 The most characteristic feature of the age was the comparative religious tolerance, which was due largely to the queen’s influence. The prevalent religious rivalry between the Catholics and the Protestants was put to an end by the queen.  A shrewd ruler, as she always was, Elizabeth avoided involvement openly with any of the religious folds.  The policy more or less today is called the absolutely secular one. 

Some other major problems at home were efficiently solved by the Queen who acted with realistic assessment of the prevalent situation. Social and financial situations immensely improved and indicated the Queen’s success as a ruler. At the same time, the Queen well controlled the British parliament and even kept in check its power, by a sound domestic policy instrumental to the growth of the country. 

Under the rule of Elizabeth I, England expanded its empire all over the world. Renaissance reached England by that time, and new learning started. An unparalleled inspiration started for the literary pursuits. Thus were born great writers like Edmund Spenser, Kyd, Marlowe, Lyly, Greene, Shakespeare, Wyatt and many others. 

We find a rare sort of exuberance in the Elizabethan drama. Renaissance bought knowledge of Greek and Roman drama. Though there were a few attempts before the Elizabethan age, English drama found its real shape in this age. Kyd, Marlowe, Lyly, Greene and Shakespeare were the major dramatists who established English drama on its own foundation. The dramatic genius of the period created a kind of national illumination and enlightenment. Excellent comedies and serious tragedies were written and staged. The playwrights explored the deep complex psychology of the characters and brought out the human nature and their natural consequences.  Thus the themes, characterizations, language and techniques of the Elizabethan drama reached at the highest distinction. 

As has been detailed above, the Queen’s wise policy brought England a period of peace and growth. Similarly, English literature especially English drama excelled in quality and quantity in the Elizabethan age and brought it rapidly to the highest stage of its development.

History of English Literature

Metaphysical poetry

Without a doubt, metaphysical poetry is one of the most interesting branches that involve fierce stuffing of thoughts not giving the reader a moment to pause and think about. "Metaphysical" when applied to poetry usually involves Love, Science, Geology, Romance, Sensuality and man's relationship with God. Metaphysical poems are lyrical poems usually containing intense meditations, characterized by striking use of wit, irony, and play on words. This type of poetry does not denote any vague trend; but rather a number of special features, illustrated by such master- Donne, Marvell, Herbert, Crashaw, and Cowley. 

Metaphysical poems are lyric poems and are very intellectual. One of the main characteristics of metaphysical poetry is concentration. The metaphysical poet does not muse or debate upon a particular idea or point. He rather keeps his reader limited to an idea or a line of argument. He tends to be brief, and his poetry is always characterized by its closely concentrated ideas. 

The second characteristic element of metaphysical poets is found in their constant use of conceits.  A conceit invites an extra-ordinary comparison between the objects in which there is no more oddity than of likeness. This is like a flash that made by two completely unlike stones. Consequently, the pre-eminence of conceits has given intellectuality to metaphysical poetry. 

Intellectualism is considered another distinct feature of metaphysical poetry. The intellectual aspect of metaphysical poetry is evident not merely in the use of conceits but also in its deeply reflective notes and pointed wit, with occasional mildly satiric stokes. The metaphysical poets are reflective and they show more intellect and less emotion.

Lastly, the analytical habit, another characteristic, of the metaphysical poets is the very cause of their oddity in imagery, diction and versification. The imagery appears often extravagant and fanciful. They are found to employ only those words that strike the mind with thoughts. The very pattern of their rhythm is the pattern of thought, analytical, probing – which are the prominent elements in metaphysical poetry. 

John Donne is supposed as the founder and most successful poet in the Metaphysical School of poetry.  His chief metaphysical poems are- “The Good- Morrow”, “The Sun-Rising”, and “The Progress of the Soul” and so on.  “The Good Morrow”, is considered as a flawless metaphysical poem where he praises the spiritual relation. Here, in the first stanza, there is the regret for past doings, in the second stanza the pleasure of discovering something, and in the last stanza the hope of doing better; are portrayed by Donne. The abrupt beginning of the poem- the use of conceits form everyday life and myth in the first stanza, the geographical reference in stanza two, the use of scholastic philosophy in stanza three, and ultimately the emphasis of spiritual love-  make it one of those poems of Donne which combine intellect and emotion. 

Metaphysical poetry is a distinct from other poetic forms, with some confined features. Moreover, Knowledge and thinking, in no narrow sense are the necessity of metaphysical poetry.